Workaround

After unsuccessful attempts to make hyphenation rules working in MikTeX I decided to use a workaround, which comes down to adding command

\sloppy

in the preamble of the LaTeX document (#+LATEX_HEADER:\sloppy in an .org file).

Problem description

Basing on instructions presented on official MikTeX page I installed MikTeX

echo "deb http://miktex.org/download/debian bullseye universe" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/miktex.list

sudo apt-get update
sudo apt-get install miktex

and then I configured it. However there exist some problem with language support. hyphenation patterns etc, which prevents from compiling the following MWE:

:PRJ-DIR: ./2022-11-16-MikTeX-Hyph-MWE/

\documentclass{article}  
\usepackage{babel}
\usepackage{polski}

\clubpenalty = 10000
\widowpenalty = 10000
\sloppy

\begin{document}
To jest tekst w języku polskim.
\end{document}

I tried to follow the hints from here, but with no success.

Finally I rebuilt the format by opening MikTeX Console and choosing

Settings -> Formats -> (choose from a list) pdflatex 
-> (click) Build format

and managed to compile with \usepackage{polski} without an error, however I still kept obtaining words that exceeded the text column. In the end I decided to use a workaround presented in section 1.